Operations in Wartime
In wartime the activities of the maritime force are normally aimed at achieving sea control and projecting power ashore.
a. Sea Control. Use of the sea requires a degree of control . Total sea control is rarely possible as long as an adversary continues to threaten forces in the area. Therefore, a degree of sea control is normally established within a designated area for a defined period of time. Sea control must provide security for forces, facilities, and sea lines of communications. Large maritime forces using an area for their own purposes can usually achieve and maintain sufficient sea control, but smaller specialist forces and civilian shipping require sea control to be established by other forces or escorts. Sea denial is a subset of sea control. Sea denial is achieved when maritime forces prevent an opposing force from using the sea for its own purposes. Sea denial is normally exercised in a given area and for a limited time.
b. Power Projection. Conflicts at sea rarely exist in isolation from a land campaign or the pursuit of territorial objectives. Even when the maritime component is operationally dominant, the ultimate outcome in the theater is likely to depend on success ashore. Maritime forces often must be prepared to operate in the littoral environment to project force ashore as part of joint operations involving naval, air, and land forces. Naval forces are normally the first forces into a crisis area and may comprise the enabling force that allows a joint force access to the region. Naval forces then contribute to operations ashore by conducting operations in direct or indirect support of those land operations. It is important to note that a maritime commander responsible for sea control may find it necessary to plan and execute power projection actions (e.g., maritime air attack of a littoral enemy air field) in order to achieve and/or maintain sea control.
Tasks for Maritime Operations
Although the following tasks are primarily applicable to wartime operations, some, or all, may apply to any maritime operation. All require an ongoing surveillance effort, using both force and external sensors, and good intelligence to create a common tactical picture on which the force can base decisions.
a. Anti-Air Warfare (AAW). AAW encompasses the threat from all aircraft and airborne weapons, whether launched from air, surface, or sub-surface platforms. Denial of intelligence to the enemy and achieving adequate attack warning are crucial to the AAW battle. AAW is based on the principle of layered defense: defeating air raids using sea- and shore-based aircraft, long- and medium-range surface-to-air missile systems, point defense missile systems, guns, close-in weapons systems, electronic decoys, jammers, and chaff. These layers are necessary to gain early warning, counter the enemy surveillance and targeting effort, destroy attacking aircraft before they can release their weapons and, finally, to destroy or decoy missiles before they can hit friendly forces.
b. Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW). The ASW protection of a force depends on defense-in-depth and close coordination between maritime patrol aircraft, helicopters, surface ships, and friendly submarines. The complexity of such coordination, and the special environmental factors involved makes the submarine threat one of the most difficult problems to counter.
c. Anti-Surface Warfare (ASUW). Action against enemy surface forces may seek to achieve either sea control or denial. Long range warning from intelligence sources is valuable prior to detection by shore or ship-based fixed-wing aircraft, ship-borne helicopters, or ships' sensors. Once a threatening force is detected its composition and disposition must be ascertained before an attack can effectively be pressed home.
d. Strike Warfare (STW). Maritime forces contribute to strikes against targets ashore using carrier-based strike aircraft, sea-launched cruise missiles, naval guns, and special operations forces. In maritime air operations, particularly in the littoral environment, air forces work in close cooperation with naval forces to ensure the most effective use of available air assets in strike roles.
e. Amphibious Warfare (AMW). An amphibious operation is an operation launched from the sea by naval and landing forces against a hostile or potentially hostile shore. Amphibious operations integrate virtually all types of ships, aircraft, weapons, special operations forces, and landing forces in a concerted joint military effort. Amphibious operations are probably the most complex of all joint operations; detailed, specialized knowledge and a high degree of coordination and cooperation in planning, training, and execution are essential for success. Maritime forces will be responsible for: the safe and timely arrival of seaborne forces at an amphibious objective, landing of a force in good order at the right place and time, defense of shipping, and control of ship-to-objective movement. An amphibious force can poise at sea, raiding or landing at a politically decided time and place independent of shore infrastructure.
f. Command and Control Warfare (C2W). Supported by intelligence, C2W integrates the use of operational security (OPSEC), operational deception (OPDEC), psychological operations (PSYOP), electronic warfare (EW), and physical destruction to deny information to, influence, degrade, or destroy an adversary's C2 capabilities and to protect friendly C2 against such actions.
g. Special Operations. Maritime Special Operations Forces (SOF) contribute direct and indirect support to sea control and power projection missions. Capable of operating clandestinely, SOF can provide advance force operations, hydrographic and near-shore reconnaissance in advance of a landing, direct action missions, combat search and rescue missions, and the ability to degrade enemy lines of communications.
h. Mine Warfare (MW). Mine warfare can involve both the offensive use of mines and defensive Mine Counter Measures (MCM). Offensive minelaying operations aim to dislocate enemy war efforts and improve the security of own sea lines of communications by destroying, or threatening to destroy enemy seaborne forces. MCM includes active measures (to locate and clear mined areas), passive measures (routing shipping around high threat areas), and self protective measures (ship signature reduction).
i. Naval Control of Shipping (NCS). A multinational maritime mission may require some form of control and coordination of shipping within a given region. The control and coordination of shipping aids the force commander by reducing the surveillance and reconnaissance effort and managing confrontation between shipping and an adversary. NCS is implemented by advising ship owners and operators of the situation, the region(s) affected, and the measures being implemented. Shipping authorities accepting NCS agree to provide position, movement, and communication information to naval authorities and, subject to the master’s discretion, comply with any routing information and direction given by naval authorities.